Asian American Comparative Collection (AACC) University of Idaho 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 1111 Moscow, Idaho 83844-1111 USA 208-885-7075 |
Priscilla Wegars, Ph.D., Volunteer Curator pwegars@uidaho.edu Renae Campbell, M.A., RPA, Research Associate rjcampbell@uidaho.edu |
"assembly center"
A euphemism for the WWII temporary detention centers
in which Japanese American citizens and permanent resident aliens
were imprisoned prior to their being sent to War Relocation
Authority concentration camps.
assimilation
Assimilation describes a process whereby a minority
group changes overtime, adopting the culture and practices of a
majority group until the two are indistinguishable from one
another. This concept was popular in American "melting pot"
metaphors and much sociological and anthropological research in
the early to mid-twentieth century. In recent years, however, many
studies have shown that cultural contact between groups is far
more complicated than the unilineal process of homogenization
implied by by assimilation and that true "assimilation" is never
truly experienced by minority groups or granted by majority
groups. In the United States, for example, it is
particularly difficult for Asian Americans to "assimilate" into
the majority group. Despite being in the U.S. for generations,
they are often still perceived as "perpetual foreigners."
Caucasian
"A colleague recently pointed out that using the word
'Caucasian' for 'white' was perpetuating the term’s racist
connotations. Since 'white' is not the 'opposite' of Chinese,
and if 'Caucasian' is not suitable, then Euroamerican, or
European American, is a better choice. As you can imagine, the
Internet offers an abundance of information on this topic.
Here is just one example, excerpted from "The Racist History
of 'Caucasian,'" by Apoorva Dutt, July 10, 2013, and available
at
<http://www.firstpost.com/world/the-racist-history-of-caucasian-945375.html>:
“A recent [U.S. Supreme Court] decision … had … Justice
Anthony M. Kennedy describing the plaintiff as a Caucasian
man. It was this … use of the innocuous word that led to
Shaila Dewan in the New York Times
<http:www.nytimes.com/2013/07/07/sunday-review/has-caucasian-lost-its-meaning.html?_r=0>
to question – why do we continue to use this obsolete racial
classification? Of course, Caucasian may not immediately
strike you as a racially offensive term. In its modern usage,
Caucasian has become the PC word people use when they don’t
want to say ‘white’. … But the word was never meant to be such
a benevolent one – Caucasian has been, since its inception, a
racially-charged word with implications of white supremacy and
superiority deeply embedded into its history. Caucasian didn’t
always simply mean ‘white’, as it does now. Before the
eighteenth century, it was exclusively a term for people from
Caucasus, a country lying on the border [of] Europe and Asia.
But in the eighteenth century, a German anthropologist, Johann
Friedrich Blumenbach, declared that the 245 skulls from the
region that were in his possession were 'the most beautiful
race of men'. … He also expanded the definition of Caucasian
to mean Europeans and the inhabitants of a region reaching
from the Obi River in Russia to the Ganges to the Caspian Sea,
plus northern Africans – a definition which technically even
included Indians. Bhagat Singh Thind was a Punjabi immigrant
to America in the early twentieth century. … After fighting in
the US Army in World War One, Thind applied for citizenship,
following a legal ruling that Caucasians had access to that
right. After a long legal battle, it was decided [in 1923]
that Indians are not considered Caucasian. Thind was a
‘Hindoo’, not a ‘Caucasian’. … Whether we realise it or not,
Caucasian might be the last racist term to be considered
largely acceptable in modern society – and it shouldn’t be.”
(Reprinted from AACC Newsletter, 31[4]:2, December
2014.)
"Celestial"
A derogatory word for a person of Chinese descent. It comes from a
former term for China, "Celestial Empire."
"Charlie"
In Canada, a derogatory term
for a Chinese man. May come from Charlie Chan.
"Chinaman" and
"Chinamen"
During the era of anti-Chinese prejudice, the terms "Chinaman" and
"Chinamen" were used in a derogatory way when speaking about the
Chinese. Unfortunately, many people still use those words without
realizing that today both terms are perceived by many as having
racist connotations. If used at all, the words "Chinaman" or
"Chinamen" should always have quotes around them, or be contained
within a phrase that is itself a direct quotation. For more
information, please refer to pp. 47-48 of the booklet, Asian
Pacific Americans: A Handbook on How to Cover and Portray Our
Nation's Fastest Growing Minority Group, edited by Bill Sing
(1989, National Conference of Christians and Jews, Los Angeles).
"Chinese Ovens"
Small domed rock structures have been reported at numerous places
in the West. Those that occur on railroad-related sites are mainly
associated with railroad construction camps; a few are known to
have been built by later section gang workers. While folklore has
often referred to them as "Chinese ovens," no archaeological or
documentary evidence has yet been found that would definitely
support a Chinese association with either their manufacture or use
in the United States. Instead, there is reason to believe that
they were built and used mainly by Italian (or sometimes Greek)
immigrants, for baking bread. Intriguingly, similarly-shaped
structures in Australia are Chinese "pig ovens" used to roast pigs
for ceremonial occasions. See "Who's
Been
Workin'
on the Railroad?:
An Examination of the Construction, Distribution, and Ethnic
Origins of Domed Rock Ovens on Railroad-Related Sites," by
Priscilla Wegars, from Historical
Archaeology, 25(1):37-65, 1991.
"Chinese Tunnels"
Many communities where large numbers of Chinese
people once lived are today rumored to have so-called "Chinese
tunnels" under downtown buildings and streets. This myth
continues to be perpetuated despite overwhelming evidence to the
contrary.
"Chinese Walls"
Hand-stacked, wall-like, rock tailings on placer
mining sites are often called "Chinese Walls." However, other
miners, besides those of Chinese descent, often stacked waste
rock neatly too. Rock walls that were actually built by
Chinese miners will have Chinese artifacts in their vicinity,
and/or there will be mining claim records at the county
courthouse that indicate purchase or lease of that area by
Chinese miners.
"ching-chong"
An "ethnic slur historically directed at
people of Chinese ancestry," mocking the tones of the
Chinese language. Contemporary racist usage directs it at
other people of Asian ancestry.
"Chink"
A derogatory word for a Chinese person, sometimes
perpetuated in geographic names that need to be changed.
"concentration camp" or
"incarceration camp" vs. "internment camp"
Although the term “internment camp” is often applied to the
War Relocation Authority (WRA) camps for West Coast families, the
WRA facilities should technically, and more accurately, be termed
incarceration or even concentration camps. While they were not
“death camps” in the same sense as the concentration camps
operated by Nazi Germany during World War II, they nevertheless
housed both U.S. citizens and non-citizens who were forcibly
imprisoned there and who could not come and go freely.
Internment camps, such as northern Idaho's Kooskia Internment
Camp, housed only non-citizens.
"coolie"
The term "coolie" has often been used to describe Chinese laborers
who came to the western U.S. to work. However, because that
term has come to have the connotation of "slave laborer," it is
inaccurate, since the Chinese who came to this country were not
slave laborers. Although a few paid for their own passage,
either by selling their possessions or borrowing money from
relatives, most of them came on a "credit ticket" system, where
their passage money was advanced to them. Once they had
arrived and were working the advance would gradually be deducted
from their wages.
"draft
dodgers"/"draft evaders"/"draft resisters"
During World War II, while they and their families were
incarcerated in War Relocation Authority concentration camps, a
number of Japanese American young men resisted the draft as a
protest against their unconstitutional imprisonment and as a
protest against being assigned only to the Army, and only to
segregated infantry combat units. These men should more
properly be referred to as "resisters
of
conscience." Their story has been told in Frank Abe's
film, "Conscience and the Constitution."
EXECUTIVE ORDER 9066
AUTHORIZING
THE SECRETARY OF WAR TO
PRESCRIBE
MILITARY AREAS
WHEREAS the
successful prosecution of the war requires every possible
protection against espionage and against sabotage to
national-defense material, national-defense premises, and
national-defense utilities as defined in Section 4, Act of April
20, 1918, 40 Stat. 533, as amended by the Act of November 30,
1940, 54 Stat. 1220, and the Act of August 21, 1941, 55 Stat. 655
(U.S.C., Title 50, Sec. 104):
NOW, THEREFORE, by virtue of the authority
vested in me as President of the United States, and Commander in
Chief of the Army and Navy, I hereby authorize and direct the
Secretary of War, and the Military Commanders whom he may from
time to time designate, whenever he or any designated Commander
deems such action necessary or desirable, to prescribe military
areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate
Military Commander may determine, from which any or all persons
may be excluded, and with respect to which, the right of
any person to enter, remain in, or leave shall be subject to
whatever restrictions the Secretary of War or the appropriate
Military Commander may impose in his discretion. The
Secretary of War is hereby authorized to provide for residents
of any such area who are excluded therefrom, such
transportation, food, shelter, and other accommodations as may
be necessary, in the judgment of the Secretary of War or the
said Military Commander, and until other arrangements are made, to
accomplish the purpose of this order. The designation
of military areas in any region or locality shall supersede
designations of prohibited and restricted areas by the Attorney
General under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941, and
shall supersede the responsibility and authority of the Attorney
General under the said Proclamation in respect of such prohibited
and restricted areas.
I hereby further authorize and direct the
Secretary of War and the said Military Commanders to take such
other steps as he or the appropriate Military Commander may deem
advisable to enforce compliance with the restrictions applicable
to each Military area hereinabove authorized to be designated,
including the use of Federal troops and other Federal Agencies,
with authority to accept assistance of state and local agencies.
I hereby further authorize and direct all
Executive Departments, independent establishments and other
Federal Agencies, to assist the Secretary of War or the said
Military Commanders in carrying out this Executive Order,
including the furnishing of medical aid, hospitalization, food,
clothing, transportation, use of land, shelter, and other
supplies, equipment, utilities, facilities, and services.
This order shall not be construed as modifying
or limiting in any way the authority heretofore granted under
Executive Order No. 8972, dated December 12, 1941, nor shall it be
construed as limiting or modifying the duty and responsibility of
the Federal Bureau of Investigation, with respect to the
investigation of alleged acts of sabotage or the duty and
responsibility of the Attorney General and the Department of
Justice under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941,
prescribing regulations for the conduct and control of alien
enemies, except as such duty and responsibility is superseded by
the designation of military areas hereunder.
FRANKLIN
D. ROOSEVELT
THE WHITE HOUSE,
February
19, 1942
(Copied from Congressional Information Service, Presidential
Executive Orders and Proclamations, p. 1092-1093, microfiche,
Documents Department, University of Idaho Library).
"44 Ronin"
Resisters of conscience from the Minidoka concentration camp.
"442nd Battalion"
An incorrect designation for the 442nd Regimental Combat Team;
possibly confusing that group with the 100th Infantry Battalion.
442nd Regimental
Combat Team
This was a World War II all-Nisei combat unit that fought in
Europe. For their numbers, they were the most highly
decorated unit during the war. See also 100th Infantry
Battalion (under "o").
"incarceration camp" or "concentration camp"
vs.
"internment camp"
Although the term “internment camp” is often applied to the
War Relocation Authority (WRA) camps for West Coast families, the
WRA facilities should technically, and more accurately, be termed
incarceration or even concentration camps. While they were not
“death camps” in the same sense as the concentration camps
operated by Nazi Germany during World War II, they nevertheless
housed both U.S. citizens and non-citizens who were forcibly
imprisoned there and who could not come and go freely.
Internment camps, such as northern Idaho's Kooskia Internment
Camp, housed only non-citizens.
"Jap"
A derogatory word for a person of Japanese descent, sometimes
perpetuated in geographic names that need to be changed.
"John" or "John
Chinaman"
An early derogatory
term for a Chinese man.
"joss house"
The term "joss" comes from the Portuguese, deus, meaning a
god. Many western communities had Chinese temples, which
Euroamericans called "joss houses." Today, the more respectful
term "temple" is best used, since it is the English translation of
the Chinese word for these structures.
"model minority"
One often hears this phrase to describe Asian Americans.
While it is well-meant, and certainly preferable to last century's
"yellow peril," the current phrase is as much a stereotype as its
predecessor, since it implies that all Asian Americans are the
same. The United States' resemblance to a "melting pot,"
amalgamating people from varied racial and ethnic backgrounds,
should be replaced by the image of a "tossed salad," in which
people from many races and ethnic groups make their own individual
and distinctive contributions to our nation's cultural and
historical banquet.
"opium den"
Opium processed for smoking could be legally imported into the
United States until 1909. Because it was a legal drug, the U.S.
government taxed it heavily, just as today's legal drugs, tobacco
and alcohol, are also heavily taxed. Some, not nearly all, Chinese
used the drug, as did some Euroamericans. Opium was used socially,
similar to today's custom of "happy hour," and it was also used
medicinally. Where opium was not outlawed by state or local
ordinance, its use was legal. Therefore, places where it was
legally smoked are more properly called opium-smoking
establishments, rather than "opium dens."
"Orientals"
The booklet, Asian Pacific Americans: A Handbook on How to
Cover and Portray Our Nation's Fastest Growing Minority Group,
edited by Bill Sing (1989, National Conference of Christians and
Jews, Los Angeles, 1989), p. 54, states: "No longer preferred,
except for objects such as Oriental rugs. Although some Asian
Pacifics, particularly older [people] and those living in Hawaii,
still refer to themselves as Orientals, most persons active in or
familiar with the Asian Pacific American community flinch when
hearing the term. To them, Oriental has a negative and outdated
ring, much as Negro does in the black community. Also, many Asian
Pacifics object to the term because it was imposed on them by
non-Asians."
"relocation camp"
A euphemism for the WWII concentration camps that imprisoned both
U.S. citizens and permanent resident aliens of Japanese ancestry.
"sojourner"
Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, many Chinese people came
to the West intending to make their fortunes and then return home.
So did people from other ethnic groups, such as Italians and
Greeks. However, some authors have used the word "sojourner" in a
way that implies that only
Chinese people were sojourners. This association is inaccurate,
because many Chinese immigrants died before they could return to
China, and others settled here permanently. Consequently, its use
for Chinese people should be limited to describing ones who are
known to have returned to China permanently.
Spelling of Chinese names
Chinese names that were historically spelled using Cantonese
pronunciation should not be given modern respellings to reflect
Mandarin sound. For example, the name of Cantonese speaker Ng Poon
Chu, a Presbyterian minister who founded a newspaper in San
Francisco and who lived in California from 1881 to his death in
1931, should not be respelled as "Wu Panzhao," the Mandarin
pronunciation for the characters of his name. For more on this
subject, see "Ramifications of Respelling Chinese Names," by Emma
Woo Louie, Asian American
Comparative Collection Newsletter, 9(3): 5-6, September
2002.
"tong"
The word "tong" has come to have unfortunate connotations because
of its association with the term "tong war," referring to armed
conflicts between rival Chinese groups seeking to control illegal
activities such as gambling, opium smoking, and prostitution.
"Tong" actually means "hall" or "parlor," in the sense of a
society or association, and most Chinese tongs were men's
fraternal or social organizations that existed to provide
benevolent services to their members.
white
White, whether it is written white or White, is not the "opposite"
of Chinese, Japanese, or any other Asian group. Euroamerican
is a better term, or one might use non-Chinese, non-Japanese, and
so on.