Teaching as Decision MakingAs quoted and adopted from: Planning a unit or lesson involves a number of instructional decisions. The teacher must identify the following: the content and processes to be addressed, the strengths, needs, and interests of students, the Common Essential Learnings that could be incorporated, and the most effective instructional approaches. Such decisions are critical and must be made consciously and purposefully. As Glickman (1991) states: "Effective teaching is not a set of generic practices, but instead is a set of context-driven decisions about teaching. Effective teachers do not use the same set of practices for every lesson . . . Instead, what effective teachers do is constantly reflect about their work, observe whether students are learning or not, and, then adjust their practice accordingly (p. 6). Because there are so many variables for teachers to consider when making decisions about teaching and learning, it is essential that they have a conceptual base for understanding Saskatchewan's Core Curriculum and a framework for understanding the levels associated with instructional decision making. This chapter deals first with the conceptual base and instructional framework, then goes on to define instructional models, strategies, methods, and skills. The instructional approaches identified in the document are flexible enough to incorporate the Common Essential Learnings and to accommodate individual student needs, abilities, interests, and strengths through the Adaptive Dimension. The following discussion focuses specifically upon the instructional portion of the Conceptual Base. The Instructional FrameworkFigure 2, the Instructional Framework, identifies and illustrates the interrelationship among instructional approaches that, properly used, are acknowledged to be consistent with sound educational practice. The approaches are referenced to the goals of education and apply to the objectives of the various curricula. Figure 2 also illustrates the levels of approaches in instruction ranging from an instructional model, a broad approach, to an instructional skill, which represents a specific teaching behavior or technique. Within each level the potential exists for developing both the science and the art of teaching. Defining the Instructional Framework Instructional Models Instructional Strategies Instructional Methods Instructional Skills Figure 3 illustrates the relationship among instructional models, strategies, methods, and skills. The Instructional Framework is intended to encourage teachers to examine their own instructional practice. Reflective assessment of the use of strategies, methods, and skills may lead teachers to broaden and deepen their repertoire of instructional approaches. Expanding the knowledge and expertise regarding various instructional approaches can enrich the artistry of teaching and, in turn, enhance the effectiveness of instruction. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to a study of specific instructional models, strategies, methods, and skills.
Instructional StrategiesDecision making regarding instructional strategies requires teachers to focus on curriculum, the prior experiences and knowledge of students, learner interests, student learning styles, and the developmental levels of the learner. Such decision making relies on ongoing student assessment that is linked to learning objectives and processes. Although instructional strategies can be categorized, the distinctions are not always clear-cut. For example, a teacher may provide information through the lecture method (from the direct instruction strategy) while using an interpretive method to ask students to determine the significance of information that was presented (from the indirect instruction strategy). Five categories of instructional strategies and the interrelationship between and among strategies are illustrated in Figure 4. Explanations of the five categories follow. Although samples of instructional methods pertaining to each category are sometimes included, these will be explained further in the section "Instructional Methods". Direct Instruction The direct instruction strategy is effective for providing information or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction. Direct instruction is usually deductive. That is, the rule or generalization is presented and then illustrated with examples. While this strategy may be considered among the easier to plan and to use, it is clear that effective direct instruction is often more complex than it would first appear. Possible Methods
Indirect Instruction Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It takes advantage of students' interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore diverse possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of interpersonal skills and abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of the material and ideas under study and develop the ability to draw on these understandings. In indirect instruction, the role of the teacher shifts from lecturer/director to that of facilitator, supporter, and resource person. The teacher arranges the learning environment, provides opportunity for student involvement, and, when appropriate, provides feedback to students while they conduct the inquiry (Martin, 1983). Indirect instruction relies heavily on the use of print, non-print, and human resources. Learning experiences are greatly enhanced through cooperation between teachers, and between teachers and the teacher-librarians. The indirect instruction strategy can be used by teachers in almost every lesson. This strategy is most appropriate when:
In order for students to achieve optimum benefits during indirect instruction, it may be necessary for the teacher to preteach the skills and processes necessary to achieve the intended learning outcomes. Skills and processes include observing, encoding, recalling, classifying, comparing/contrasting, inferring, interpreting data, predicting, elaborating, summarizing, restructuring, and verifying. Indirect instruction, like other strategies, has disadvantages. Indirect instruction is more time consuming than direct instruction, teachers relinquish some control, and outcomes can be unpredictable and less safe. Indirect instruction is not the best way of providing detailed information or encouraging step-by-step skill acquisition. It is also inappropriate when content memorization and immediate recall is desired. Possible Methods
Interactive Instruction The interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods. These may include total class discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together. It is important for the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of discussion time, the composition and size of the groups, and reporting or sharing techniques. Interactive instruction requires the refinement of observation, listening, interpersonal, and intervention skills and abilities by both teacher and students. The success of the interactive instruction strategy and its many methods is heavily dependent upon the expertise of the teacher in structuring and developing the dynamics of the group. Possible Methods
Experiential Learning
Experiential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which are necessary:
The emphasis in experiential learning is on the process of learning and not on the product. A teacher can use experiential learning as an instructional strategy both in and outside the classroom. For example, in the classroom students can build and stock an aquarium or engage in a simulation. Outside the classroom they can, for example, observe courtroom procedures in a study of the legal system, or conduct a public opinion survey. Experiential learning makes use of a variety of resources. Possible Methods
Independent Study The importance of independent study is captured in the following statement: Independent learning has implications for responsible decision-making, as individuals are expected to analyze problems, reflect, make decisions and take purposeful actions. To take responsibility for their lives in times of rapid social change, students need to acquire life-long learning capability. As most aspects of our daily lives are likely to undergo profound changes, independent learning will enable individuals to respond to the changing demands of work, family and society. (Saskatchewan Education, 1988, p. 53) Possible Methods
Instructional MethodsAfter deciding on appropriate instructional strategies, a teacher must make decisions regarding instructional methods. As is the case with strategies, the distinction between methods are not always clear cut although they are categorized for the purposes of this document. Figure 5 illustrates how various methods relate to the five strategies presented in the previous section. It should be noted that the methods appearing in the diagram are examples only, and are not intended to be inclusive of all instructional methods. A sampling of instructional methods with accompanying explanations is presented in this section. The methods are organized by instructional strategy, as they appear in Figure 5. Strategy: Direct Instruction Lecture Didactic Questioning Strategy: Indirect Instruction Indirect Instruction Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It takes advantage of students' interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore diverse possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of interpersonal skills and abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of the material and ideas under study and develop the ability to draw on these understandings. In indirect instruction, the role of the teacher shifts from lecturer/director to that of facilitator, supporter, and resource person. The teacher arranges the learning environment, provides opportunity for student involvement, and, when appropriate, provides feedback to students while they conduct the inquiry (Martin, 1983). Indirect instruction relies heavily on the use of print, non-print, and human resources. Learning experiences are greatly enhanced through cooperation between teachers, and between teachers and the teacher-librarians. The indirect instruction strategy can be used by teachers in almost every lesson. This strategy is most appropriate when:
In order for students to achieve optimum benefits during indirect instruction, it may be necessary for the teacher to pre-teach the skills and processes necessary to achieve the intended learning outcomes. Skills and processes include observing, encoding, recalling, classifying, comparing/contrasting, inferring, interpreting data, predicting, elaborating, summarizing, restructuring, and verifying. Indirect instruction, like other strategies, has disadvantages. Indirect instruction is more time consuming than direct instruction, teachers relinquish some control, and outcomes can be unpredictable and less safe. Indirect instruction is not the best way of providing detailed information or encouraging step-by-step skill acquisition. It is also inappropriate when content memorization and immediate recall is desired. Concept Formation
In this instructional method, students are provided with data about a particular concept. These data may be generated by the teacher or by the students themselves. Students are encouraged to classify or group the information and to give descriptive labels to their groupings. By linking the examples to the labels and by explaining their reasoning, the students form their own understanding of the concept. Concept formation lessons can be highly motivational because students are provided with an opportunity to participate actively in their own learning. In addition, the thinking process involved helps them create new and expanded meaning of the world around them as they organize and manipulate information from other lessons and contexts in new ways. Inquiry
Questioning is the heart of inquiry learning. Students must ask relevant questions and develop ways to search for answers and generate explanations. Emphasis is placed upon the process of thinking as this applies to student interaction with issues, data, topics, concepts, materials, and problems. Divergent thinking is encouraged and nurtured as students recognize that questions often have more than one "good" or "correct" answer. Such thinking leads in many instances to elaboration of further questions. In this way students come to the realization that knowledge may not be fixed and permanent but may be tentative, emergent, and open to questioning and alternative hypotheses. Deductive Inquiry The focus in deductive inquiry is on moving students from a generalized principle to specific instances that may be subsumed logically within generalizations. The process of testing generalized assumptions, applying them, and exploring the relationships between, specific elements is stressed. The teacher co-ordinates the information and presents important principles, themes, or hypotheses. Students are actively engaged in testing generalizations, gathering information, and applying it to specific examples. Deductive inquiry is based upon the logical assimilation and processing of information. Inductive Inquiry The information-seeking process of the inductive inquiry method helps students to establish facts, determine relevant questions, develop ways to pursue these questions, and build explanations. Students are invited to develop and support their own hypotheses. Through inductive inquiry, students experience the thought processes which require them to move from specific facts and observations to inferences. To help students accomplish this, the teacher selects a set of events or materials for the lesson. The student reacts and attempts to construct a meaningful pattern based on personal observations and the observations of others. Students generally have some kind of theoretical frame when they begin inductive inquiry. The teacher encourages students to share their thoughts so that the entire class can benefit from individual insights. Strategy: Interactive Instruction A. Classroom Group Interaction Discussion Effective discussions are normally based on material familiar to the students. The problem or issue can be one that does not require a particular response, or one where it is important for students to discover an answer. The teacher should stress with students that opinions must be supported, and then ensure that the terms and concepts needed are understood. Discussion should conclude with consensus, a solution, clarification of insights gained, or a summary (preferably one provided by the students). Students should have a clear understanding of the major points and their applications to other situations. It should be noted that some discussions can lead students to conduct further research. Question and Answer B. Small Group Interaction Co-operative Learning Group A substantial body of research has shown that co-operative learning is effective. Johnson and Johnson (1989) state: Co-operative learning experiences, compared to competitive and individualistic ones, promote higher achievement, greater motivation, more positive interpersonal relations among students, more positive attitudes toward the subject area and teacher,greater self esteem and psychological health, more accurate perspective taking, and greater social skills (p. 8-9). In addition, Slavin (1987) indicates that two conditions must be established if cooperative learning is to fulfill its claim of enhancing student achievement substantially. Slavin believes that "students must be working toward a common goal . . . [and] success at achieving the goal must depend on the individual learning of all group members" (p.9). Co-operative learning can take place in a variety of circumstances. For example, brainstorming and tutorial groups, when employed as instructional strategies, provide opportunities to develop co-operative learning skills and attitudes. Strategy: Experiential Learning Simulation During simulation activities, students become active participants in the learning process. A variety of learning objectives may be associated with the simulation. Some focus on the application of previous knowledge, skills, and abilities, while others emphasize the acquisition of new knowledge, understandings, insights, and appreciations. Many simulation activities promote and develop critical and creative thinking or involve interactions which develop interpersonal and social skills, attitudes, and values. Focused Imaging In the classroom, imaging exercises nurture and develop students' creative potentials. Teachers can encourage divergent thinking by asking students to transform a teacher guided image into several others of their own creation, to imagine various solutions for spatial or design problems, or to visualize a particular scene or event and then imagine what might happen next. Imaging provides a focus and an opportunity for open-minded exploration of new concepts in all areas of study. It can help broaden students' conceptual understanding of subject area material, especially complex concepts and processes. Imaging allows students to connect their prior experiences to new ideas under investigation. Assigned Questions This instructional method is effective when questions are well-phrased so that answering involves more than mechanical searching and copying from a book or other reference. It can be an efficient way for the teacher to introduce or review facts, concepts, generalizations, arguments, and points-of-view. Well-selected assigned questions can stimulate higher-level thinking, problem solving, decision making, and personal reflection. Questions should allow for multiple responses. Because student abilities and learning styles differ, this method may require some adaptation in order to maximize learning for all students. Learning Contracts When a student is first beginning to use learning contracts, the teacher provides learning objectives, identifies a choice of resources, and sets some basic time parameters for the project. As students become more experienced with learning contracts, the teacher may choose to involve them in setting the learning objectives. Learning contracts usually require that students demonstrate the new learning in some meaningful way, but students are provided choice in the selection of a method or activity. Learning contracts can be highly motivating for students. As they become skillful in making appropriate choices and as they begin to assume more responsibility for their own learning, they become increasingly independent, learn to use resources to their advantage, and take pride in their ability to teach themselves and share their new learning with others. Instructional SkillsInstructional skills are the most specific category of teaching behaviors. These are used constantly as part of the total process of instruction. They are necessary for procedural purposes and for structuring appropriate learning experiences for students. No matter how experienced or how effective a teacher may be, the development and refinement of these skills and processes is a continual challenge. A variety of instructional skills and processes exist. Some are broader than others and more complex in their nature. Some factors which may influence their selection and application include student characteristics, curriculum requirements, and instructional methods. For the purpose of illustrating instructional skills, two examples follow: explaining and demonstrating, and questioning. Explaining and Demonstrating The teacher spends much classroom time explaining or demonstrating something to the whole class, a small group, or an individual. Student resource materials typically do not provide extensive explanations of concepts, and students often need a demonstration in order to understand procedures. Explaining Some explanations are given to help students acquire or deepen their understanding of a concept, while others help students understand generalizations. Concerning the former, the teacher must select an appropriate concept definition and appropriate examples and nonexamples. Regarding the latter, Shostak (1986) suggests that an explanation can show:
Demonstrating Much student learning occurs through observing others. A demonstration provides the link between "knowing about" and "being able to do." Research reveals that demonstrations are most effective when they are accurate, when learners are able to see clearly and understand what is going on, and when brief explanations and discussion occur during the demonstration (Arenas, 1988). Questioning Among the instructional skills, questioning holds a place of prominence in many classrooms. When questioning is used well:
Good questions should be carefully planned, clearly stated, and to the point in order to achieve specific objectives. Teacher understanding of questioning technique, wait time, and levels of questions is essential. Teachers should also understand that asking and responding to questions is viewed differently by different cultures. The teacher must be sensitive to the cultural needs of the students and aware of the effects of his or her own cultural perspective in questioning. In addition, teachers should realize that direct questioning might not be an appropriate technique for all students. Questioning Technique The teacher should begin by obtaining the attention of the students before the question is asked. The question should be addressed to the entire class before a specific student is asked to respond. Calls for responses should be distributed among volunteers and non-volunteers, and the teacher should encourage students to speak to the whole class when responding. However, the teacher must be sensitive to each student's willingness to speak publicly and never put a student on the spot. Wait Time Wait time is defined as the pause between asking the question and soliciting a response. Providing additional wait time after a student response also allows all students to reflect on the response prior to further discussion. Increased wait time results in longer student responses, more appropriate unsolicited responses, more student questions, and increased higher order responses. It should be noted that increased wait time is beneficial for students who speak English as a second language or English as a second dialect. Levels of Questions While the need for factual recall or comprehension must be recognized, teachers also need to challenge students with higher level questions requiring analysis, synthesis, or evaluation. The consideration of level is applicable at all grade levels and in all subject areas. All students need the opportunity to think about and respond to all levels of questions. Teacher probes or requests for clarification may be required to move students to higher levels of thinking and deeper levels of understanding. SummaryBecause there are so many variables for teachers to consider when making decisions about teaching and learning, it is essential that they have a conceptual base for understanding Saskatchewan's Core Curriculum and a framework for understanding the levels of instructional decisions. This chapter described the conceptual base and an instructional framework. It provided an overview of instructional models, strategies, methods, and skills. In addition, it illustrated the inter-relatedness of these four levels of the instructional framework."
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